The contrast between the managed failure of the expedition’s leadership and the effective survival of the interpreter’s family is striking in retrospect, and it has not been as foregrounded in the historical literature as it might be.

The Record Washington Irving Didn’t Write

Washington Irving published “Astoria, or Anecdotes of an Enterprise Beyond the Rocky Mountains” in 1836.

It was and remains one of the most readable accounts of the Astorian enterprise, drawing on interviews with surviving participants and on the available primary sources.

Irving was a skilled popular writer with a genuine interest in the material.

He understood the commercial and geopolitical significance of Astor’s enterprise.