Nothing was separated, cleaned, or discarded before it had been documented.

This approach, called a block excavation, is now standard practice for delicate or historically significant specimens, but it requires considerable logistical investment.

The block containing Shanidar Z’s skull was removed from Iraq to Cambridge, transported in conditions designed to minimize further damage to the already fragile material.

Once in the laboratory, the micro-stratigraphic analysis began.

Thin sections of sediment — slices thinner than a millimeter, prepared on glass slides and examined under polarized light — can reveal the history of the deposit at extraordinary resolution.

Researchers can identify individual grains of mineral, fragments of burned bone, plant remains, and the traces of biological activity.