The decision to attempt ancient DNA analysis on the Mal’ta remains required negotiation with Russian institutions, the development of sampling protocols that would minimize damage to irreplaceable museum specimens, and the application of then-cutting-edge analytical methods to exceptionally old and therefore exceptionally degraded material.

The technical challenges were substantial.

The DNA extracted from the 24,000-year-old arm bone was highly fragmented — broken into short pieces by millennia of chemical degradation.

Distinguishing authentic ancient sequences from the modern contamination that inevitably finds its way into laboratory environments required sophisticated bioinformatic methods.

And the population genetic analyses that revealed the relationships between the Mal’ta genome and modern and ancient populations required computational approaches that were themselves relatively new.

The success of the project reflected both the capabilities of Willerslev’s team and the quality of preservation in the Siberian burial.