The process of converting NUE001’s tooth root into a complete genome required a series of technical steps that represent the accumulated learning of the ancient DNA field across four decades.

The first step was the selection and preparation of the sample.

The tooth root was chosen because, as described earlier, the dense enamel shell protects the pulp cavity from bacterial invasion, preserving genetic material more effectively than bone.

A small sample of material from the root was prepared in a dedicated ancient DNA laboratory — a space specifically designed to minimize contamination, with air filtration systems, UV lighting to degrade any ambient DNA, and strict protocols about who enters and what they bring in.

In these laboratories, researchers work under conditions more stringent than most hospital operating theaters.