The murder finding, when it was made in 2001, was not based on genetics but on high-resolution X-ray imaging and detailed forensic analysis of the wound and the projectile.

The material culture analysis — the study of Ötzi’s clothing, tools, and equipment — has been equally important and equally demanding.

Identifying the species of animal whose hide was used in each component of the coat required sophisticated methods of species identification from ancient leather.

Identifying the plant species in the grass cloak required botanical expertise applied to fragmentary and degraded material.

The analysis of the copper axe blade’s composition and its implications for the manufacturing tradition required metallurgical expertise.