The study does not establish that no living person carries any ancestry related to the Checua group.

The populations included in the comparison were extensive but not complete.

Ancient populations that were not included in the study’s reference panel might carry traces of Checua-related ancestry that the current analysis could not detect.

The study does not represent the final word on the demographic history of Colombia or the northern Andes.

It represents a major first step — the first published ancient genomic dataset from Colombia — that opens many more questions than it closes.

The four-thousand-year gap in the genomic time series, the limited coverage of other Colombian regions, and the absence of data from neighboring Venezuela, Ecuador, and Panama all mean that the full picture will require substantially more work to emerge.