But this time, there was no congressional investigation, no widespread condemnation, no removal of the responsible commanders.

The political culture had decided that winter attacks on plains camps, regardless of the specific character of the camp, were acceptable military strategy.

The difference between Sand Creek and the Washita reflects the evolution of American policy from unofficial violence to official policy.

By 1868, the destruction of plains camps was not a rogue operation.

It was the plan.

The Legacy That Deserves Recognition

Black Kettle deserves recognition not only as a victim of American violence but as one of the most principled and determined leaders in the history of the southern plains — a man who pursued a course of action that he believed was right, under conditions of extraordinary difficulty, and paid the ultimate price for it.