They had seen that sustained resistance could force American policy changes.

They had also seen the limitations of what resistance could achieve — the 1868 treaty had stopped the Bozeman Trail, but it had not produced genuine sovereignty or security from future American demands.

When the crisis of the Black Hills came in the mid-1870s, it was the younger generation — Crazy Horse, Sitting Bull, and others who had been junior warriors during Red Cloud’s War — who led the military resistance.

The political skills that Red Cloud had developed, and that produced the 1868 treaty, were not theirs or were not their primary approach.