His primary range was farther north and east, closer to the Missouri River, though his territory overlapped with the region affected by the Bozeman Trail conflict.

He was, in the mid-1860s, establishing himself as a significant military and political leader among the Hunkpapa.

His approach to American expansion was consistently and explicitly non-cooperative.

He did not participate in treaty negotiations.

He did not sign the 1868 treaty.

His position was that no Lakota person had the authority to sign away rights to Lakota territory, and that therefore no treaty could legitimately bind the Lakota people.

This position was principled but had the practical consequence of making him a target of American military operations — since he was not party to the treaty, he was not protected by it.