The allotment policy, which sought to divide communal tribal lands into individual parcels and open “surplus” land to non-tribal settlement, affected many tribes.

Boarding school policies removed children from their communities and forbade the use of Indigenous languages and cultural practices.

The termination policies of the 1950s sought to end the federal recognition of tribes, a move that would have eliminated treaty rights and tribal sovereignty.

The Makah Tribe navigated this period while maintaining key elements of their cultural and governmental identity.

The treaty rights, particularly the fishing and whaling rights, remained legally intact even when they were difficult or impossible to exercise in practice.

The tribal government continued to function as a representative institution for the community.