The young men who carried out these raids were acting partly from fury over specific grievances — the murder of a warrior’s father by a settler, ongoing cattle raids by settlers on nimíipuu herds — and partly from the general rage that had been building for years as the nimíipuu watched their country taken and their people humiliated.

But they were acting without the authorization of the leaders, and the leaders understood immediately what the consequences would be.

Whatever possibility of a peaceful move to the reservation had existed before June 13 was gone.

The army would come now.

It would not ask questions about who had done what.

The non-treaty bands, as a collective, would be held responsible.

The leaders debated their options.