He had seen what happened when the army attacked a camp.

He had seen the army direct artillery at the area where families sheltered.

He had concluded, on the basis of direct experience, what it meant to trust the army’s promises of safe treatment.

The Citizenship And The Reservation: What Followed

After the exile period — after Fort Leavenworth and Indian Territory and the years of petition and advocacy — the surviving nimíipuu who were eventually allowed to return to the Northwest arrived not at their homelands but at designated reservation areas.

Joseph’s Wallowa band, and others from the non-treaty bands, were sent to the Colville Reservation in Washington rather than to Lapwai.