Results were published before affected communities had a chance to review them.

Genetic data derived from ancient Indigenous individuals was deposited in databases without community oversight.

And the findings were sometimes used in ways that communities had not anticipated or authorized.

These experiences created well-founded distrust.

Many Indigenous communities became resistant to genetic research of any kind — not because they were opposed to science as such, but because they had seen how genetic research could be used, and they had not been given adequate control over how it was conducted or how its findings were applied.

The Spirit Cave partnership was an attempt to do something different.