This does not justify the raids, which killed American civilians.

But it complicates the simple narrative of hostile Indians attacking peaceful settlers — a narrative that was used to justify attacks like the Washita without acknowledging the systemic failures that had contributed to the raiding.

Black Kettle understood this dynamic.

He was constantly trying to navigate between the American military’s demand for Cheyenne compliance with the treaty terms and the reality that the treaty terms were not being honored on the American side.

It was an impossible position.